Where art thou surplus value?
Rent,
interest and profit (and taxes) are the parts of the value added by
labour that go to the owners of capital (and to government). They are
deducted from the wealth produced, not added. The question is how do
the owners of capital transform their rent, interest and profit into
new capital that can be accumulated? Rent and interest are levied in
monetary form, and profit is part of the monetary value obtained on
the market for goods and services. Capital appropriates wealth as
money, and can transform that money into more capital. All would be
fine, except for the fact that capital is getting more money out of
the market than it is putting in, and that extra money has to come
from somewhere. Capital pays for investments and labour, and gets
that value back plus something more, the surplus value that pays
rent, interest and profit.
Taking
up Marx’s model with two departments, one (I) comprising goods and
services that become investments, and the other (II) comprising goods
and services that will be consumed, Rosa Luxemburg reasoned that
either department I grows abnormally and department II stagnates, or
consumption must be transformed into investments abroad, or consumers
must get ever deeper in debt. Writing in 1912 she did not know what
would happen in the USSR, and colonial plunder still paid for
military consumption. And, though mass consumer credit did not exist,
lending to foreign governments to pay for imports from the lender was
already common practice. Things have changed since then, but the
accumulation of capital still drains value from outside itself, from
the non-capitalist world or from competing capitalisms, by guile or
by force. And capital still grants credit for the sale of its surplus
value. This means imperial dominion, belligerence and unmanageable
debts.
Rosa
Luxemburg’s analysis of how private capital accumulates shows up an
unsustainable process (1). As it is totally dependent on expansion,
its predation will always bring it into conflict with other similar
predators (2). As public and private consumers lack the wherewithal
to consume, it will lend and lend until debts smother everything (3).
Whereas, without expansion and debts, department I grows in
disproportion to department II (4). There is a faint glimmer of hope,
however. Between the two models represented by the USA and the USSR,
Rosa Luxemburg briefly suggested a possible third way (5). There is
an alternative, even if its realisation is improbable. Doomsday is a
choice, not a fatality. It is all about who does the choosing. Is it
a bunch of hubris driven billionaires surrounded by subservient
yes-persons, or is it humanity trying to make planet Earth a safe and
pleasant place to live? So far the billionaires have kept the
upper-hand, but that surely cannot be the end of the story. Two
million years of evolution, five thousand years of history and three
centuries of research and development just to culminate with Donald
Trump and his buddies, is both comic and tragic. That an overweight,
orange coloured, blethering buffoon, born with a diamond spoon, will
soon command the planet’s military and financial super power is a
joke on those who still believe that America is the Great Beacon
lighting up the world. But it is the promise of continuing misery for
the countless already suffering, and a threat for those who have yet
to feel the sting. The tyranny of wealth and power seems to favour
the ruthless novus homo rather than the virtuous patrician,
and floundering capitalism grabs what it can. Trump’s election is
the sign of a rough ride into the unknown for everyone.
The
page numbers are from the Routledge 2003 edition
2.
Ch. 26 p. 338:
From
the very beginning, the forms and laws of capitalist production aim
to comprise the entire globe as a store of productive forces.
Capital, impelled to appropriate productive forces for purposes of
exploitation, ransacks the whole world. It procures its means of
production from all corners of the earth, seizing them, if necessary
by force, from all levels of civilisation and from all forms of
society. The problem of the material elements of capitalist
accumulation, far from being solved by the material form of the
surplus value that has been produced, takes on quite a different
aspect. It becomes necessary for capital progressively to dispose
ever more fully of the whole globe, to acquire an unlimited choice of
means of production, with regard to both quality and quantity, so as
to find productive employment for the surplus value it has realised.
3.
Ch. 30 p. 414
In
1874, a further attempt was made to raise a national loan of £m.50
at an annual charge of 9 per cent., but it yielded no more than
£m. 3.4. Egyptian securities were quoted at 54 per cent of
their face value. Within the thirteen years after Said Pasha’s
death, Egypt’s total public debt had grown from £m. 3.293 to £m.
94.110, and collapse was imminent.
These
operations of capital, at first sight, seem to reach the height of
madness. One loan followed hard on the other, the interest on old
loans was defrayed by new loans, and capital borrowed from the
British and French paid for the large orders placed with British and
French industrial capital.
While
the whole of Europe sighed and shrugged its shoulders at Ismail’s
crazy economy, European capital was in fact doing business in Egypt
on a unique and fantastic scale – an incredible modern version of
the biblical legend about the fat kine which remains unparalleled in
capitalist history.
p.
417:
An
opportune pretext for the final blow was provided by a mutiny in the
Egyptian army, starved under European financial control while
European officials were drawing excellent salaries, and by a revolt
engineered among the Alexandrian masses who had been bled white. The
British military occupied Egypt in 1882, as a result of twenty years’
operations of Big Business, never to leave again. This was the
ultimate and final step in the process of liquidating peasant economy
in Egypt by and for European capital.
4.
Ch. 7 p.94:
Department
I retains the initiative all the time, Department II being merely a
passive follower. Thus the capitalists of Department II are only
allowed to accumulate just as much as, and are made to consume no
less than, is needed for the accumulation of Department I.
Ch.
25 p. 315:
These
capitalists are thus fanatical supporters of an expansion of
production for production’s sake. They see to it that ever more
machines are built for the sake of building – with their help –
ever more new machines. Yet the upshot of all this is not
accumulation of capital but an increasing production of producer
goods to no purpose whatever.
p.
319:
It
goes without saying that if the capitalists of Department I
relatively restrict their consumption for purposes of accumulation,
there will be a proportionately greater unsalable residue of consumer
goods in Department II; and thus it becomes more and more impossible
to enlarge the constant capital even on its previous technological
basis. If the capitalists in Department I relatively restrict their
consumption, the capitalists of Department II must relatively expand
their personal consumption in proportion. The assumption of
accelerated accumulation in Department I would then have to be
supplemented by that of retarded accumulation in Department II,
technical progress in one department by regression in the other.
5.
Ch. 7 p. 101/2:
Let
us imagine for a moment that, instead of a capitalist method of
production, we have a socialist, i.e. a planned society in which the
social division of labour has come to replace exchange. […] from
the figures previously assumed, we should get the following diagram
for a regulated production:
I.
4,000c + 1,000v + 1,000s = 6,000 means of production
II.
2,000c + 500v + 500s = 3,000 means of consumption
Here
c stands for the material means of production that have been used,
expressed in terms of social labour time; v stands for the social
labour time necessary to maintain the workers themselves and s for
that needed to maintain those who do not work and to build up the
reserves.
If
we check up on the proportions of this diagram, we obtain the
following result: there is neither commodity production nor exchange,
but in truth a social division of labour. The products of Department
I are assigned to the workers of Department II in the requisite
quantities, and the products of Department II are apportioned to
everyone, worker or no, in both departments, and also to the
reserve-fund; all this being the outcome not of an exchange of
equivalents but of a social organisation that plans and directs the
process as a whole – because existing demands must be satisfied and
production knows no other end but to satisfy the demands of society.